Cognitive and learning needs relate to how students plan, organise, understand, remember and apply information during learning. They may affect attention, task completion, reading, writing, numeracy or the ability to manage complex learning activities. These needs can be expressed differently across subjects, tasks and learning environments and may vary over time. Identifying them helps teachers understand which aspects of learning may create barriers for individual students.
\nExecutive functioning involves mental processes that support planning, organisation, decision-making, problem-solving, attention, impulse control, flexible thinking and self-monitoring. Students may experience difficulties initiating tasks, following several steps, managing time, prioritising information or completing activities independently. They may also find it challenging to shift between tasks, monitor their progress or regulate their attention and responses during demanding situations.
\nMemory needs may affect how students retain, organise, retrieve and apply information during learning. Difficulties may involve working memory, long-term memory, verbal memory, spatial memory or the recall of previously learned information and experiences. Students may lose track of multi-step instructions, have difficulty connecting new information with previous learning or need more time to retrieve knowledge they have already acquired. They may also find it difficult to recognise when previously learned knowledge or strategies are relevant and to recall and apply them at the appropriate moment or in a new context. Attention and information processing may also influence how effectively information is remembered and used.
\nReading needs may relate to recognising written words, connecting sounds with letters, reading fluently or understanding the meaning and structure of a text. As reading is a fundamental means of accessing information, reading difficulties may affect learning across all subjects, including those in which reading demands are less immediately apparent. Students may have difficulty understanding written instructions, identifying what a task requires, extracting relevant information from word problems or following explanations presented in textbooks, worksheets, digital materials, diagrams or captions. They may also experience difficulties identifying key information, understanding unfamiliar vocabulary, following longer passages or recognising relationships between different parts of a text. Reading demands may place increased pressure on attention, working memory and processing speed, further limiting access to learning and the ability to demonstrate knowledge.
\nWriting needs may involve handwriting, spelling, written expression, organisation of ideas or the physical demands of producing written work. Students may find it difficult to translate their ideas into a structured written form, plan and organise a text, maintain appropriate spacing or write fluently and legibly. Some students may have clear ideas or strong verbal knowledge but experience barriers when expressing the same understanding in writing. Writing difficulties may also affect motivation, concentration, self-monitoring and confidence.
\nNumeracy needs may affect understanding and using numbers, mathematical concepts, symbols, quantities, measurements, data or spatial and geometric information. Students may experience difficulties following multi-step procedures, interpreting mathematical language, recalling previously learned skills or applying knowledge to everyday situations. Numerical abilities may be uneven: a student may understand complex mathematical or scientific concepts and demonstrate advanced reasoning, while still experiencing difficulties with basic arithmetic operations, recalling number facts, calculation fluency or practical numerical tasks. Students may also find it challenging to identify what a task requires, select an appropriate procedure or explain their mathematical reasoning. These needs can influence both formal mathematics learning and practical activities involving time, money, measurement, estimation or data.
\nCommunication and interaction needs relate to how students understand information, express themselves and participate in social situations. They may affect access to spoken, written or nonverbal communication, as well as the ability to initiate, maintain and interpret interaction with others. These needs may vary depending on the situation, communication partner, environment, communication methods available and the student’s previous linguistic, cultural and social experiences. Students may enter school with different communication practices, expectations and experiences of relationships, which can influence how they interpret and respond to school-based interactions. Identifying these needs helps teachers create conditions in which students can understand, communicate and participate more effectively, without treating unfamiliar or culturally different communication patterns as deficits.
\nCommunication needs may involve understanding spoken or written information, expressing ideas, needs and opinions, or accessing communication through suitable formats and channels. Students may need more time to process information, may find complex or indirect language difficult to understand, or may communicate more effectively through visual, written, signed, digital or augmentative and alternative communication. Difficulties may also arise when instructions are lengthy, communication is rapid or several people speak at the same time.
\nInteraction needs relate to participation in conversations, group activities, peer relationships and other social situations. Students may find it difficult to interpret social cues, understand implicit expectations, take turns, initiate interaction or respond appropriately in unfamiliar or changing situations. They may also need support in managing misunderstandings, expressing disagreement, cooperating with others or developing a sense of belonging within the group.
\nEmotional and behavioural needs relate to how students experience, express and regulate emotions and how they respond to expectations, challenges and social situations. These needs may influence well-being, relationships, participation, attention and engagement in learning. Their expression may vary across situations and can be shaped by stress, previous experiences, family and cultural contexts, relationships, the learning environment and the support available. Students may enter school with different experiences of safety, trust, authority, conflict and emotional expression, which can influence how they interpret and respond to school situations. Behaviour that appears inappropriate or challenging may therefore represent an attempt to communicate a need, cope with distress or respond using strategies that have been learned in previous environments. Understanding the context and possible function of students’ responses helps teachers provide support without labelling, blaming or judging the student.
\nEmotional regulation needs may affect how students recognise, communicate and manage emotions such as anxiety, frustration, disappointment, anger or stress. Students may find it difficult to identify what they are feeling, recognise personal triggers or respond flexibly when situations become demanding or unpredictable. Emotional overload may influence concentration, decision-making, communication, participation and the ability to continue with a task. Some students may also need support in developing confidence, resilience and effective ways of coping with challenging situations.
\nBehavioural support needs may become visible when students find it difficult to understand expectations, regulate their responses or use appropriate strategies in challenging situations. Behaviour may be influenced by unmet needs, emotional distress, communication difficulties, sensory overload, uncertainty or demands that exceed the student’s current abilities. Students may experience difficulties with self-control, cooperation, conflict management or understanding the consequences of their actions. Identifying the function and context of behaviour helps adults support the development of more effective and socially appropriate responses.
\nMobility and sensory needs relate to how students access, move within and participate in different learning environments and how they receive information through vision and hearing. These needs may affect access to spaces, learning materials, communication, practical activities and school events. Their impact may vary according to the environment, the demands of a particular activity and the accessibility of the support available. Identifying these needs helps ensure safe, independent and meaningful participation in education.
\nAccessibility and mobility needs may affect students’ movement, positioning, physical access to learning spaces or participation in practical and movement-based activities. Students may experience barriers when entering or moving around buildings, accessing furniture and learning materials, changing position or using equipment. Mobility needs may also be associated with fatigue, pain, motor coordination or the need for assistance with particular activities. Some students with significant physical or neurological impairments may also experience difficulties with body temperature regulation or recognising thermal discomfort, which may result in either overheating or becoming excessively cold. These needs may affect comfort, concentration, safety and participation and should be considered in indoor and outdoor learning environments. Their impact can differ across classrooms, laboratories, outdoor spaces, school events and excursions.
\nVisual needs may influence how students access written information, images, demonstrations, spatial arrangements and other visually presented content. Vision also plays an important role in observing the environment, forming concepts and gaining information incidentally from everyday situations. Limited access to visual information may therefore result in incomplete or inaccurate understandings of objects, events or relationships, particularly when concepts are explained mainly through visual examples. Spoken language and verbal descriptions can provide important access to information, but words may not always be supported by sufficient direct, tactile or practical experience. When visual details are not accessible, students may also rely more heavily on other people’s descriptions and interpretations of situations. Students may experience difficulties reading standard print, recognising visual details, following information displayed at a distance or navigating unfamiliar environments. Their visual access may also be affected by lighting, contrast, glare, visual complexity or prolonged visual concentration. The form and extent of these needs may vary considerably between students and across learning situations.
\nHearing needs may affect access to spoken information, classroom discussion, instructions and communication with teachers and peers. Students may find it difficult to follow speech in noisy environments, identify who is speaking, understand rapid communication or access information presented only orally. Limited access to overheard conversations and sounds in the environment may also reduce opportunities for incidental learning, through which other students acquire information without direct instruction. Accessing spoken communication may require sustained concentration and considerable listening effort; when attention fluctuates or fatigue increases, students may miss important parts of an explanation or interaction. In group situations, they may not always have full access to what others are discussing and may hesitate to indicate that they have not understood. Students may therefore rely on contextual cues, observe the actions of others or follow the group without having received all the information about what is expected, why an activity is taking place or what will happen next. These needs may influence participation, confidence and a sense of belonging in classroom and social situations. Students may use different communication modes, including spoken, written or signed communication, depending on their individual preferences and circumstances.
\nHealth and medical needs relate to students’ physical health, ongoing medical conditions and the support required to participate safely and meaningfully in education. Students may need to take medication, use medical devices, follow specific health-related routines or have access to rest, food, drinks or other forms of support during the school day. Their health and energy levels may fluctuate and can affect attendance, concentration, pace, participation and the ability to complete learning activities. Some students may experience frequent or prolonged absences because of illness, treatment, medical appointments or recovery. On returning to school, accumulated work and pressure to catch up may increase fatigue and stress, further affect their health and contribute to repeated absence. Their educational needs may therefore include support for continuity of learning and a gradual, manageable return to regular participation. Some health conditions may also involve a risk of acute complications and require clearly agreed procedures, appropriate staff awareness and preparedness for emergency situations.
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