Information refers to any material that conveys something about a topic or issue, including facts, claims, data, descriptions, arguments, interpretations, quotations, statistics, images, and other media.
→ misinformation, disinformation, malinformation
An information item is a discrete, self-contained unit of information that
a creator produced
by selecting its content: facts, claims, desciriptions, arguments, interpretations, images, or other media
by framing the content: presenting, emphasising, and contextualising it
by giving it a form or genre: an article, a post, a message a video, a report, a tweet, an interview, or conversation
an editor may have reviewed (→ degree of editorial review)
has been circulated: spoken, posted, sent, or broadcast (→ information circulation)
and can be encountered within an information environment: a website, a social media platform, a personal conversation, or a publication (→ information visibility)
Every information item presents its content from some perspective — there is no neutral, frame-free version.
This perspective can range from balanced contextualisation, through an explicit viewpoint, to deliberate manipulation.
### Creation, Circulation & Reception | ### → Source Credibility & Information Reliability | ### → Information Visibility | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
Lifecycle | Actor | Quality Control: Verification | Gatekeeping: Selection & Exclusion | |
Creation: Production | creator (human or AI) | * is created by selecting its content: | * may or may not be well researched by checking its sourcesby checking and revising its content (→ fact-checking) | |
PRE-PUBLICATION | ||||
→ Editorial Review | editor / reviewer | * may be verified by verifying its sourcesby verifying its content (→ fact-checking)by revising content and/or framing | * may be selected or rejected for publication | |
→ Editorial Curation | editor / publisher | |||
→ Source-Driven Self-Promotion | creator / publisher / influencer / advertiser | |||
Circulation: Sharing / Publication | creator / publisher / distributor | * is shared by voicing, posting, sending, publishing or broadcasting | ||
POST-PUBLICATION (esp. in digital environments) | ||||
→ Content Moderation | moderator / algorithm | * may rarely be verified (→ fact-checking) | * may be admitted, blocked, filtered, or removed | |
Platform-Side Promotion→ Editorial Curation→ Algorithmic Curation | editor / algorithm | |||
Reception: | recipient / audience | * is encountered within an information environment | ||
POST-RECEPTION | ||||
Engagement | recipient / audience | * may be viewed, liked, saved, watched, or reacted to | ||
Re-Circulation | recipient / audience as secondary distributor | * may be forwarded, or reposted | ||
START OF A NEW LIFE-CYCLE | ||||
Re-Creation | recipient / audience as new creator / secondary source | * may be used to create a derived information item by quoting, commenting on, editing, summarising, remixing, reframing, or embedding it in a new context | * may or may not be well researched by checking its sources****by checking and revising its content (→ fact-checking) |
Who created it, and with what expertise or interests? (→ Creator)
How is the content selected and framed? (→ Content Selection, → Framing)
How carefully was it reviewed before publication? (→ Degree of Editorial Review)
How did it reach me — and how prominently? (→ Circulation, → Visibility)
Where did I encounter it? (→ Information Environment)
What sources or references does it draw on? (→ Reference, Evidence)
The publication date is the date when an information item was originally published, posted, or broadcast.
It indicates how current the content is and whether it may have been overtaken by newer findings, events, or developments.
Content refers to what is actually said, shown, claimed, or explained in an information item.
It includes the facts, claims, data, descriptions, arguments, interpretations, images, or other media through which the information item conveys meaning.
→ fabricated content, manipulated content
Snippets are compact previews or representations of an information items that unsers encounter before accessing the full source.
They typically combining a title, a short excerpt or summary, source information such as the domain or URL, and sometimes a thumbnail.
They appear in search results, feeds, and link previous on social media or in messaging apps.
A reference is an information item or source that is cited, quoted, linked, or referred to within another information item.
It shows which sources an information item draws on.
It makes it possible to trace information back towards its origin.
Following references is a key strategy for evaluating reliability.
People encounter information items in two ways. In an information environment, they encounter the item directly, whether physical or digital: a newspaper, a broadcast, a social media post, a website. Through an information access system, they reach items indirectly: a search engine or feed returns previews that point to items held elsewhere, and a generative AI system synthesises a response from them.
The boundary between the two is increasingly fluid. A generative AI system draws on existing items indirectly, yet the response it returns is itself a new information item, encountered directly within the system. A podcast directory points to episodes hosted elsewhere, yet also plays them in the app, and sometimes hosts its own. Because such overlaps are now common, information environment is often used as the umbrella term for both.
Information Environments | Definition | What do I usually encounter there first? |
|---|---|---|
Analogue Information Environments | non-digital environments in which people encounter information items directly | information items in printed, transmitted, spatial, live, or spoken form |
Digital Information Channels & Platforms | digital environments in which people encounter information items directly | information items in posted, uploaded, or streamed form |
The boundary between analogue and digital environments is increasingly fluid: live broadcasts may be streamed simultaneously, print publications often appear in digital form, and live events are frequently broadcast or streamed online.
Information Access Systems | Definition | Where do I start? | What appears there? |
|---|---|---|---|
#### Search Systems | Systems that locate and rank information items in response to a user query, returning previews rather than the items themselves. | a search interface | a ranked list of previews: |
#### Discovery Systems | Systems that surface and curate information items in feeds or directories, returning previews rather than the items themselves. | a feed or browse interface | curated previews: |
#### Generative AI Systems | Systems that generate or synthesise responses based on information items rather than directing users to them. | a prompt window | a generated, synthesised response, sometimes with citations |
Type | Definition | Typical Examples (encounter on purpose) | Typical Examples (encounter in passing) | How do I encounter information here? |
|---|---|---|---|---|
#### Print / Publications | Printed materials — such as newspapers, magazines, books, brochures, flyers, posters, or signage — that are physically distributed, displayed, or made available for reading. | - newspaper subscription | - campaign flyer in a letterbox | - by purchasing, subscribing, or picking up a copy |
#### Broadcast & Public Address | Audio or audiovisual information transmitted to a wide audience through radio, television, screens, or public address systems — either as scheduled programming or as continuous / situational announcements. | - TV news at home | - TV screen in a waiting room | - by tuning in to a channel or station |
#### Installations, Monuments & Exhibits | Spatial, static, and typically permanent or semi-permanent objects, structures, or displays placed in public or institutional spaces to inform, commemorate, or express. | - museum exhibition | - monument in a public park | - by visiting a space that contains them |
#### Live Events & Public Action | Time-bound, live gatherings or actions involving people — organised to inform, persuade, express, commemorate, or mobilise. | - conference | - street protest | - by attending at a specific time and place |
#### Personal Conversations & Word of Mouth | Direct, face-to-face exchange of information between individuals — in private, social, or professional settings. | - asking a friend for advice | - overhearing a conversation | - by talking, listening, and asking in direct personal interaction |
Type | Definition | Typical Examples | Who can publish information here? | Is what I see here the same for everyone, algorithmically personalised for me, or based on my own configuration? | How do people find and move through information here? |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
### Websites / Blogs | An individual's or organisation's own online space — such as an institutional website, a news site, a company page, or a personal blog — where content is published directly in the owner's name. | - who.int | Owner-controlled | Same for everyone | - By following menus |
### Social Media | Networked digital spaces where users and organisations post, share, and circulate content. | - Facebook | Open | Algorithmically personalised for me | - By scrolling through feeds |
### Video / Audio Platforms | Digital spaces where many different users or organisations upload and share video or audio content. | - YouTube | Open | Algorithmically personalised for me | - By searching for specific items |
Streaming / On-demand Services | Curated digital services that offer access to a catalogue of on-demand media. | - Netflix | Curated | Algorithmically personalised for me | - By browsing the catalogue |
Communication / Messaging Apps | Private or semi-private spaces — such as messaging or email apps — for direct exchange between individuals or groups. | - WhatsApp | Member-controlled | Based on my own configuration | - By opening chats or threads |
Discussion Forums / Community Spaces | Interactive spaces — such as forums, discussion boards, comment sections, or community groups — where users discuss, comment, ask questions, and respond to one another. | - Reddit | Semi-open | Same for everyone / Based on my own Configuration | - By browsing threads |
Some platforms fall into more than one type — for example, Telegram (messaging + public channels), Discord (messaging + community), Reddit (forum + social media), Spotify (streaming + podcast discovery).
Barrier | Examples | People typically excluded |
|---|---|---|
#### Financial barriers | - Paywalls | - Low-income households |
#### Language barriers | - Foreign language | - Non-native speakers |
#### Disability-related barriers | - No screen reader support | - Users with visual impairments |
#### Technical barriers | - High bandwidth requirements | - Users with older devices |
#### Geographic barriers | - Region locks | - Users in restricted regions |
#### Political / regulatory barriers | - Government censorship | - Users in countries with restrictive media policies |
#### Account & identification barriers | - Mandatory account creation | - Users without an email or phone |
#### Privacy-related barriers | - Mandatory data sharing | - Privacy-sensitive users- Users avoiding government surveillance- Users wary of corporate data collection |
These barriers are not mutually exclusive, they often overlap or reinforce each other — for example, the Great Firewall of China blocks specific platforms only within that country, acting as both a geographic and a political/regulatory barrier.
information items accessed indirectly through search
→ users enter a query in a search interface and receive a ranked list of previews pointing to the underlying items
Type | Definition | Typical Examples | What is my starting point and how do I look for information here? | What determines which information items are displayed and in what order? | What do I get back? | How do I move from here to the underlying information item(s), if at all? |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
### Search Engines | Systems that index and rank information items across the web based on user queries. | - Google | - search bar | - my query | Previews of existing information items: | - by clicking a result link, which takes me directly to the information item in its original space |
### Scholarly Databases | Systems that make scholarly information items searchable and accessible through search, filtering, and structured metadata. | - PubMed | - advanced search form with filters | - my query | Previews of existing information items: | - by clicking through to the full text |
information items accessed indirectly through curated feeds or directories → users browse a feed or directory and see previews pointing to the underlying items
Type | Definition | Typical Examples | What is my starting point and how do I look for information here? | What determines which information items are displayed and in what order? | What do I get back? | How do I move from here to the underlying information item(s), if at all? |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
#### Feeds | Systems that present a continuous, personalised stream of recommended information items based on topics, interests, or user behaviour. | - Google News | - personalised feed or browse interface | - editorial curation | Previews of existing information items: | - by tapping or clicking a headline, card, or preview |
#### Directories | Systems that organise information items into browsable catalogues with categories, charts, and recommendations. | - Apple Podcasts | - browse interface with categories and charts | - editorial curation | Previews of existing information items: | - by tapping or clicking a listing |
Some platforms function as both Discovery Systems and Digital Channels — Apple Podcasts and Spotify Podcasts, for example, surface podcasts hosted elsewhere but also play the content directly within the app.
information items accessed indirectly through generative synthesis
→ users enter a prompt and receive a synthesised response, sometimes with references to underlying items
Type | Definition | Typical Examples | What is my starting point and how do I look for information here? | What determines which information items are displayed and in what order? | What do I get back? | How do I move from here to the underlying information item(s), if at all? |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
### Training-data based AI | Systems that generate responses based on patterns learned during training, without real-time retrieval from external sources. | - ChatGPT | - prompt window or chat interface | - my prompt | Generated content: | - the generated response is typically the endpoint |
### RAG* AI | Systems that synthesise responses by retrieving relevant content from external sources at query time — from the open web or from a user-provided corpus. | - Perplexity | - prompt window or search interface | - my prompt | Generated content: | - through cited sources or links, when provided |
Training-data based AI Assistants increasingly include retrieval modes (e.g., ChatGPT with web search, Claude with search). When activated, they function as RAG systems for that query — the boundary between the two types is mode-dependent rather than product-dependent.
*RAG (Retrieval-Augmented Generation): a method that combines AI generation with retrieval from a defined corpus of sources — the system synthesises responses based on the retrieved content rather than only on its training data.